Kap Report Endline September 2012 Free Essays

KNOWLEDGE ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES (KAP) END-LINE ASSESSMENT On Water, Sanitation and Hygiene LOLKUACH Village, IDPs of Akobo September-2012 DRC-Gambella WASH Team Conducted in the frame of an ECHO funded project â€Å"Improving access to short-term food security, safe drinking water, hygiene and basic household items in Ethiopia† Wanthowa Worda, Gambella, Ethiopia September 30, 2012 i TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 2 3 3. 1 INTRODUCTION SUMMARY OF FINDINGS METHODOLOGY Objectives of the Survey 1 2 3 3 4 4. 1 FINDINGS General Background Information 4 4 5 5. We will write a custom essay sample on Kap Report Endline September 2012 or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1 5. 2 5. 3 WATER RELATED INFORMATION Water Sources Water collection and storage Household Water Treatment 5 5 9 11 6 6. 1 6. 2 HEALTH AND HYGIENE Diseases Washing Hands and Good Hygienic Practices 12 12 15 7 7. 1 7. 2 SANITATION Defecation Waste and Waste Management 18 18 20 8 9 CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS 23 24 25 10 REFERENCES i 1 Introduction The 2012 report states that as of end of 2010: Over 780 million people are still without access to improved sources of drinking water and 2. 5 billion lack improved sanitation. If current trends continue, these numbers will remain unacceptably high in 2015: 605 million people will be without an improved drinking water source and 2. billion people will lack access to improved sanitation facilities. An estimated 801,000 children younger than 5 years of age perish from diarrhea each year, mostly in developing countries. This amounts to 11% of the 7. 6 million deaths of children under the age of five and means that about 2,200 children are dying every day as a result of diarrheal dis eases. Unsafe drinking water, inadequate availability of water for hygiene, and lack of access to sanitation together contribute to about 88% of deaths from diarrheal diseases (UNICEF, WHO, 2012: 2; Center of Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). As to Andrea Naylor: although worldwide there have been thousands of projects to address water and sanitation issues as they relate to public health with continued improvements since the 1980’s, research has shown that due to lack of evaluation surveys on the effectiveness and success of these interventions, many are not sustainable . To this end, the essence of conducting end-line survey is very critical to gauge the effectiveness and success of the interventions of DRC-Gambella. The Gambella Region has an approximately population of 332,600 people, with 49,457 living in Akobo and Wantawo Woredas. These populations are subjected to water shortage and floods. Moreover the population is prevalently pastoralist and follows seasonal migration patterns for cattle grazing and protection of livestock from drought and floods. The perennial attacks by the Murle tribe, coupled with intra-clan conflicts among the Nuer tribes of Ethiopia and South Sudan, aggravates a situation of chronic displacement, making populations of bordering areas, especially Akobo, susceptible of massive and prolonged internal displacements. Conflicts, drought and floods are the key challenges to the populations in Akobo and in Wantawo. The consequent perennial movement makes the community vulnerable to food insecurity, disease and water shortage. It is in view of this that Danish Refugee Council seeks to address in the short term the basic needs of these populations by providing access to clean drinking water, and tools to improve hygiene and to build the capacity of the community to respond to these challenges. From the period of July 2011 to June 2012, DRC implemented a Water, Sanitation and Hygiene project, funded by ECHO, with the goal of rehabilitating 7 hand pumps (and subsequently chlorinating the water), distributing NFI kits, hygiene kits, and implementing hygiene promotions. DRC decided to conduct two in-depth KAP surveys (as a baseline and endline) to evaluate the impact brought by the implementation of the project in the targeted area. The baseline survey was conducted in the month of May 2012 and the end line survey was conducted in the second week of September 2012. In the period between the two surveys, a number of activities covering water, sanitation and hygiene were implemented in the frame of the project. 2 Summary of Findings Project outputs and behaviour and knowledge change (as indicated by the pre and post implementation KAP surveys) indicate the following key findings: o o o o o o Seven hand pumps were rehabilitated/ disinfected Hygiene promotion targets were surpassed. planned: 5,490 beneficiaries; 10,950 reached) Hygiene kit distributions were surpassed (planned: 2,250 beneficiaries; 8,870 reached) NFI kit distributions were surpassed (planned 6,300 beneficiaries; 7,470 reached) The number of respondents who use hand pumps as source of water increased from 4% to 75% Knowledge and practice of feasible water purification practices such as boiling, filtration or adding tablet/sachet has been greatly impr oved Instance of diarrhoea has decreased from 60% to 24% of respondents stating that they had had diarrhea in during the 3 weeks prior to the survey Knowledge that rain water is a safe drinking water source has improved from 24% to 62% of respondents, however, the use of rain water remains limited. Knowledge of the causes of unsafe drinking water (including germs, visible particles and bad taste) increased from 40% to 81%. The practice of open defecation has reduced from 100% to 15% of respondents. Hand washing at critical times has increased from 34% to 85% of respondents. 2 o o o o o o o Appropriate waste disposal mechanisms improved from 39. 2% in baseline to 75% of respondents.. Although there has been an improvement in the knowledge of respiratory and eye infection transmission/protection, there is still room for improvement 3 Methodology A cross sectional, qualitative study was conducted through house to house interviews, taking 150 respondents randomly as study subjects. The sample represents nearly 10% of the total targeted household 1 n Lolkuach village (1,500 household). The questionnaire (See Annex I) was employed to collect data on general background information, knowledge, attitude and practices of the IDPs of Lolkuach village. However the results can also be consi dered pertinent for the host communities if considering the cultural and environmental homogeneity. Verbal consent from the respondents was obtained after explaining the purpose of the study. Data was collected from 13 to 14 September 2012. The data from the questionnaires was entered into SPSS software (version 13) by the principal investigators for further analysis. Data reliability was assured using different techniques such as: ? Properly designed questionnaires were prepared and pretested. ? Data collectors were hired locally and tested during the training on the contents of the questionnaire. Constant supervision was done by DRC WASH Team Leader, and problems encountered at the time of data collection were reported immediately and appropriate actions taken. 3. 1 Objectives of the Survey ? To identify gaps in knowledge regarding health and hygiene practices and existing practices leading to negative impact on health. ? ? To describe the socio demographic, cultural information of respondents and villages. To find out the information on incidence of communicable disease due to unhygienic practice. 1 It is estimated, on the base of IOM Akobo IDPs database, that the number of households currently living in Lolkuach is 1500 and average family size is 5. 3 ? To assess the effectiveness and impact of the DRC water, sanitation and hygiene promotion activities. 4 Findings 4. 1 General Background Information The beneficiaries of the programme, and KAP survey respondents are all part of the displaced NuerGajok population from Akobo Woreda now living in Wantawo. Among the KAP survey respondents, the majority (about 65 %) were female, whereas 35% were male. Females were particularly targeted for the KAP survey, as they were the primary recipients/participants in the DRC project, and are traditionally responsible for child care and household WASH issues. This survey was conducted near the end of the rainy season, in Lolkuach IDP settlement. Respondents reported moving between the river banks temporary camps and dry land permanent villages according to seasonal variations. During the dry season, the majority of the respondents live in Dimbierow village (79%), and Nyawich village (17%), while only 4 % of the respondents indicated that they live in Lolkuach village throughout all the year. However there are frequent movements among the settlements throughout all the year. Most of the respondents (86. 2%) indicated that they arrived at Lolkuach between February and June 2009 following a recurrence of conflict with Lou Nuer in Akobo woreda. Minority of the respondents arrived during the same period of 2008 (12. 8%) or 2010 (1 %). Most of the respondents therefore have been displaced since 2009. When respondents were asked if they plan to return to their villages of origin, a pronounced number (55%) indicated that they don’t have any plans to return due to security problems (expressed as ‘war’, ‘conflict’, ‘insecurity’). The remaining 45% of the respondents indicated that they plan to return back in the future if the security situation is restored and the construction of the road from Mathar to Akobo is finalized. In this regard, as it can be observed from the baseline survey, no significant difference noted in the end line survey. However looking in detail at the positive answers (from the 45% of respondents), 21% expressed a plan to go back within six months and the remaining 34% indicated a time longer than six months. Moreover even the respondents who indicated that they have a plan to return back to 4 Kebele of origin also mentioned their fear about the security situation (expressed as ‘if peace come back’, ‘if cattle raiding ends’, if the construction of the road to Akobo is completed and similar). 5 Water Related Information 5. 1 Water Sources Before the project interventions, the baseline data indicated that almost 100% of the respondents were accessing unsafe drinking water from the river, which is contaminated from the presence of livestock and open defecation. At the end of the project implementation, the hand pump aintenance/rehabilitation/water chlorination, coupled with pure sachet distributions, bucket distributions, and hygiene promotions resulted in a significant posit ive change. As you can observe from the Figure 1, the majority of the respondents are now using water from newly maintained/rehabilitated hand pumps. Due to seasonal movement however, the proportion of respondents using hand pumps during the dry season reduces, as many of the beneficiaries move to areas without hand pumps. The following graph outlines both the shift in hand pump use (pre and post intervention), and also the relation of this use in terms of seasons. There are still not sufficient hand pumps in Lolkuach area to support the population however, which explains why 100% of the respondents are not using these protected sources. Considering that the 7500 inhabitants of Lolkuach, Thore and Lolmokoney have only 7 hand-pumps (hand dug wells), this is insufficient as per SPHERE standards)2 , highlighting the need to construct new hand pumps. 2 Considering the maximum number of users for 1 hand pump should be 500, at least 15 hand pumps would be needed in Lolkuach 5 Seasonal Use of Protected Water Sources – Pre and Post Intervention 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Dry Season Rainy Season % of Respondents Seasons Baseline Endline Figure 1: Shift in Use of Protected Water Sources (KAP baseline an d end-line) Seven hand pumps in Lolkuach and surrounding villages were disinfected and beneficiaries received pure sachet as well bucket and filter. From the findings, the graph below states that it is only 27% of the respondents indicated that the main problems with their water source are water is dirty and it tastes bad. Whereas 40. 7% of the respondents also signified that the water source is far. Problems Related to Water Supply 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Dirty Water Bad Taste Irregular FlowSource is Dried Distance to No problems Up Source % Respondents Baseline Endline Water Source Issues Figure 2: Main problems related to water supply. 6 Consequently 63% of the respondents consider the water they are using is safe for drinking, and 33% consider it is unsafe instead (Figure 3). This represents a reduction in the proportion of respondents who stated that they were using unsafe water from 77% in the baseline to 33% in the end-line survey. Of these 33% of respondents who noted that they were drinking unsafe water, 8% of the respondents were using hand dug wells (Which were rehabilitated by DRC) as source of water for drinking. Figure 3: consideration of water safety Figure 4: reasons why 33% declared water is unsafe In relation to the safety of water, the reason why 33% of respondents declared that they are using unsafe water is mainly because the water contains germs, is not filtered and not cleaned. This shows that their understanding about the causes of unsafe water has improved since the baseline (Figure 4). When it comes to use of rainwater as source, though improvement is registered, much needs to be done to bring about significant change. Considering the shortage of safe water sources in the area observed by DRC, and the abundant rain-fall in Gambella region3, reasons for not using the rainwater (which is almost distilled4) were assessed more closely. Although the number of respondents who believe that 3 The annual rain falls in Gambella region ranges between 800 and 1200mm, but about 85% of rains are concentrated between May-October (Woube, 1999). 4 In this regards, Dev Sehgal, indicated that rainwater harvesting is an easy method to collect drinking water, and the quality of the water is almost distilled. First when the water touches the catchment surface it usually gets contaminated (Dev Sehgal, 2005). 7 rainwater is unsafe has reduced from 76% to 38% of respondents, more can be done to raise awareness on this water collection method. Of the 38% of respondents who would not collect rain water given the choice, the principal reasons were given as follows: Figure 5: Investigation about unused rain water When questioned on their knowledge of safe drinking water and water pollution causes, respondents were given the option of providing more than one answer. The number of respondents who indicated that drinking water shouldn’t have germs, visible particles and/or bad taste, increased from 40% at the baseline to 81. 3% at the end-line. The respondents who indicated that the proximity of a latrine to water sources can cause water contamination increased from 7. 2% in the baseline to 15% in the end-line survey. In this regards, water quality and health council indicated that especially the proximity of latrine to water sources can cause Removing the first harvested water, so-called first flush, can prevent this. When the rain starts to fall the first water cleans the catchment surface and fills up the first flush diverter, by the time it is full a ball closes the opening and leads the water to the main tank. The downside of rainwater harvesting is that it requires double storage, as it is hard to purify water at the same speed as it rains (Gould, J. Nissen-Petersen, E. , 2005). 8 contamination . The majority of the respondents (85%) also indicated that garbage disposal or animals feces containers near a water source, or unprotected source can cause water contamination (Figure7). 5 Knowledge of Causes of Water Source Pollution 100 90 80 % Respondents 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Defecation Nearby Garbage Nearby Dirty Container Causes of Pollution Figure 7: Knowledge of Water Source Pollutants Baseline Endline Although only a small proportion of respondents acknowledge that water can be contaminated through the ground from a latrine constructed too close to a water source, 95% of respondents are now aware that defecation near a water source is a pollutant, resulting in a change of behavior in which open defecation has reduced from 100% in the baseline to 15% in the end-line survey. 5. 2 Water collection and storage From the Figure 8, it can be observed that nearly 50% of respondents less than 50 minutes to fetch water during dry seasons6, meaning that SPHERE standards for these respondents are met for watersource distance because of the rehabilitations of the hand pump in the vicinity of the village. Concerning rainy season, it can be observed that respondents spend more time getting water. As it is observed, respondents need to travel some distance to fetch water and during the dry season respondents also move to river banks. Hence, this can make the access to hand pump difficult. So besides constructing 5 The causes of water pollution vary and may be both natural and anthropogenic. However, the most common causes of domestic water pollutions includes : garbage disposal and defecation near water sources, animals feces, sharing the same sources with animals, use of dirty or open water container can affect the safety of our water . Use (Water Quality and Health Councils, 2010; CAWST, 2009; Laurent, P. , 2005). 6 According to SPHERE key indicators, the maximum distance from any household to the nearest water point is 500 metres 9 new hand pumps, encouraging the community for rain water catchment strategy is very essential at household at household level. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0-50 50-100 Min 100-250 Min More than 250 Dry Season Rainy Season Figure 8: Average time spent to collect water Given that water collection requires women and girls to walk distances to find water sources, there may be heightened protection issues for these family members, although protection was not assessed in the KAP. Question posed to respondents on what devices that they are using to store and collect water indicated that 55% of the respondents are using plastic jerry cans to collect water and 34% of the respondents use plastic bucket for water collection. For storing water, nearly 33% of the respondents use traditional clay pot and plastic jerry cans; the rest 36% of the respondents indicated plastic jerry cans or buckets with lid. DRC distributed NFI (Contains 2 Jerry cans each 20 litters among others) and Hygiene kits (Contains 2 Buckets each 10 litters among other) to 302 and 283 households respectively living in Lolkuach areas. To this end, most of the respondents own more than one container. But still those who didn’t receive water storage and collection device also were among the respondents who took part in the survey, we can 10 observe that 70% of respondents meet the minimum SPHERE7 requirement for water collection container, and 74% meet the requirement8 for water storage. Whereas in the baseline, it was noted that only 50% of the respondents met the requirement for water storage and collection devices. 5. 3 Household Water Treatment The knowledge of practical purification methods like boiling, filtration or adding tablet/sachet was assessed. As it can be observed from Figure 12, there is great leap in knowledge of the basic methods of household water treatment. For instance, use of purifying sachet/tablet increased from 8% at baseline to 85% at the end-line survey. The findings also suggested that the majority of the respondents (more than 75%) know the use of feasible practices like boiling, filtration or adding tablets/sachet for water treatments9. This figure was only 25% in the baseline survey. After the baseline survey, it is worth to note that DRC-Gambella has been distributing purifying sachet and providing demonstrations for those villages with no access to hand pumps. 7 According to SPHERE key indicator: Each household has at least two clean water collecting containers of 10-20 litres, plus enough clean water storage containers to ensure there is always water in the household. The amount of storage capacity required depends on the size of the household and the consistency of water availability e. g. approximately 4 litres per person would be appropriate for situations where there is a constant daily supply 8 Requirement for storage is calculated according to certain specificities, but considering the minimum of 4lt/person/day, for an average household of 5, should be at least 20 lt. 9 Different researchers suggested some feasible practices like boiling, filtration or adding Figuret/sachet and chlorination for water treatment (CAWST, 2009; Davis Lambert, 2002). 11 Knowledge of Household Water Treatment 140 120 % Respondents 100 80 60 40 20 0 special container Boiling Use of sachet Cleaning Filtering container with cloth Covering sunlight Baseline Endline Figure 12: Knowledge of household water treatment methods 6 Health and Hygiene 6. 1 Diseases Respondents were asked about the diseases their family experienced during the three weeks before the interview. The number of respondents who caught diarrhea in the three weeks prior to the interview reduced from 60% in the baseline to 27. 3% in the end-line survey. Hence, you can see from the end-line survey that hygiene conditions and practices are improving. When it comes to the causes of diarrhoea, more than 85% of the respondents referenced unsafe drinking water, children feces, germs/bacteria, open defecation, poor hygienic practices and flies as causes of diarrhea (Figure 16), indicating that the hygiene promotion has resulted in an increase in knowledge. 12 Figure 16: Knowledge about diarrhea transmission Interviewees were asked to indicate in a multiple choice question, which action to be taken to protect their families from the different diseases that they suffered from. The respondents who indicated that they can be protected from malaria by sleeping under mosquito net increased from 40% to 75%. Keeping the environment clean and good hygienic practices also attributed as a method of prevention of malaria by many respondents (Figure 14). 13 Knowldge of Malaria prevetion measure 120 100 Respondents 80 60 40 20 0 Keeping environment Clean Safe water Good hygienic practice Use mosquitonet Wash cloth Wash hand Baseline Endline Figure 14: knowledge of malaria prevention measures When it comes to skin diseases, most of the respondents indicated that good hygienic practice as way of prevention of skin diseases (Figure 15). 14 Figure 15: Knowledge of skin diseases prevention measur es Nearly 51. 2% of the respondents indicated that good personal hygiene, keeping the environment clean, use of safe water for drinking, washing hands, washing clothes and hanging them in the sun can protect their families from respiratory and eye problems. The above results indicate that the knowledge of the people has improved with regards to respiratory illness and eye infection transmission and protection, however there is still room for improvement. 6. 2 Washing Hands and Good Hygienic Practices General question about hygiene and more specific ones about hand washing were posed. Keeping food away from flies, bathing regularly, keeping compounds clean, protecting food and washing hands are considered as good hygienic practices by the majority of the respondents in the end-line survey. This means that the figure increased from nearly 51% at the baseline to nearly 85% in the endline. 15 Figure 18: Knowledge about keeping good hygiene Likewise, when respondents specifically asked if they wash their hands, 89% of the interviewees gave affirmative answer in the end-line Survey. People who wash hands reported to be doing it in order to eliminate bad smell and prevent diseases. Similarly more details of the hand washing practice can be seen from Figure 20, and it can be concluded that more than three fourth of the population who wash their hands, are doing it at the appropriate times. 16 Figure 20: Frequency of hand washing practice While the vast majority of the respondents (95%) stated they would like to bathe once a day, when it comes to practice, 29% of respondents expressed they have problems in taking bath regularly mainly because of lack of container and soap (Figure 21). Hygiene practices were also considered to be a major issue by nearly 40. 6% of the respondents, these respondents indicated that poor practices are due to both a lack of access to hygiene items, and a poor attitude brought on by a lack of knowledge. So the majority of the respondents signified that the distributed hygiene kits solved some of their problems and they were adhering to good hygienic practices. 17 7 Sanitation 7. 1 Defecation Before the DRC intervention, the majority of the adults practiced open defecation. Because changing habits is not easy, the baseline assessment was designed to understand the risk practices that were most widespread and identify those that could be changed. From the point of view of controlling diarrhoea, the priorities for hygiene behavioral change included hand washing at critical times and safe stool disposal. To this end, the efforts of the organization brought significant behavioral change. From the end-line survey it is noted that 85% of the respondents use traditional latrines, which is up from 0%. Similarly, when asked to indicate the best option for defecation, 85% indicated the latrine. On the other hand, privacy, water pollution, presence of bad smell and flies, as well as spread of disease was reported as the main problem related to open defecation practices (Figure 23). Respondents were also asked about post defecation cleansing habits and mostly indicated pieces of paper. Figure 23: Problems related to defecation practice 18 Considering the majority of respondents indicated that a latrine is the best option for defecation, and that the main issue with defecation is privacy, disease, water pollution, smell and environmental pollution, it was observed that the traditional latrine which is constructed by the participation of the communities has been welcomed and used by the community. In the baseline survey it was found out that inadequate sanitary conditions and poor hygiene practices played major roles in the increased burden of communicable disease within the village. Similarly, the baseline information stated that beneficiaries had problems with access to safe water and sanitation facilities. To this end, DCR Gambella set a strategy to solve the problems through community participation. DRC- Gambella inculcates the basic principles and approaches Sanitation) of into CLTS the (Community newly Lead Total PHAST designed Participatory hygiene and Sanitation Transformation) training. As both approaches opt f or communities’ participations and empowerment and focus on igniting a change in sanitation and hygiene behaviour, a PHAST training manual that encompasses both PHAST methodology and catalysts for change in sanitation behaviour was prepared and distributed. After community based health promotions work, and community conversation establishments at each village, the accessibility to sanitation facilities and sanitation practices improved. 1446 households who completed hand washing points and traditional pit latrine (See the figure on the right side) were awarded NFI to recognize their efforts of behavioral changes. Hand washing after stool contact and safe disposal of stool have been priorities in hygiene and sanitation promotion interventions in Wanthowa Woreda. By understanding that for the quickest and widest adoption of good hygienic practices it is often more cost-effective to rely on social ambitions rather than health arguments to encourage change, DRC linked hygiene promotion works with social and cultural values, norms as well as NFI distributions, such that all hygiene promotions were linked with cultural problems of Nuer society and social values. As a result good improvements in both hand 19 washing and safe stool disposal were registered. This can be confirmed by looking at the end line KAP survey results. 7. Waste and Waste Management The majority of disease measures are related to environmental conditions: appropriate shelter, clean water, good sanitation, and vector control, personal protection such as (insecticide-treated nets, personal hygiene and health promotion). Appropriat e waste disposal mechanism is vital to avoid environmental pollution and breading place for vectors and pathogens. In this regards, the majority of the respondents (75%) indicated that they are now burning the household solid wastes on timely bases (Figure 24). The number of respondents who had been disposing solid wastes in open space and river significantly decreased after the interventions. Figure 24: waste disposal practice 20 The problems concerning waste were indicated in flies, bad smell, breeding place for mosquitoes. Majority of the respondents understood that appropriate solid waste disposal plays a vital role in minimizing the breading of vectors and other pathogens (Figure 25). Figure 25: Problems related to waste disposal The majority of respondents indicated that the practice used to dispose household waste is burning. Improvement in waste disposal and keep the villages clean is observed by DRC field staffs. Similarly the views of the majority of the respondents on the attributes of clean and health village is improved. It is noted that availability of safe water, cleanness of the village and availability of latrine considered by more than three fourth of the respondents as the attributes of clean and health village in the end-line survey. But those we stated the same were nearly 50% in the baseline survey. 21 Similarly, the benefits of keeping a village were mainly identified as decrease of diseases occurrence, improved beauty of village, minimized presence of mosquitoes and flies by more than three fourth of the respondents in the end-line where as this nearly 53% in the baseline. From end-line survey, it can be inferred that majority of respondents indicated that important public health factors such as availability of safe water and atrines, absence of stagnant water and mosquitoes among the attributes of an healthy village. They also noted that this has great impact in reduction of infection disease prevalence. Hence, it can be concluded that the understanding of the majority of the respondents on disease transmission, transmission routes and its preventions tremendously improved after the interventions. 22 8 Conclusion Diarrhoea causes dehydration and kills approximately 2. 2 million people, mostly children, every year. Children are more likely than adults to die from diarrhea because they become dehydrated more quickly. In the past 10 years, diarrhea has killed more children than all of the people lost to armed conflict since World War II. Its occurrence is closely related to the opportunities that poor people (especially poor mothers) have to improve domestic hygiene10. Diarrhoea does not only cause disease and early death in children, but also affects children’s nutritional status, stunting children’s physical and intellectual growth over time. Skin and eye infections are especially common in arid areas. Both diarrhoea and other infectious diseases have health as well as socio-economic consequences. Washing more often can greatly reduce their spread11 . Similarly, the training manual of Amhara region indicated that improved hygiene, particularly hand washing at critical times can reduce diarrhea by one third and reduce malnutrition12. Soiled hands are an important source of transmitting diarrhoeas. Recent research also suggests that hand washing is an important preventive measure in the incidence of acute respiratory infections, one of the top killer of children under five. 13 This KAP survey was conducted in order to compare its results with the results of the baseline survey, to identify whether the hygiene promotion activities conducted in the frame of the ECHO funded project had been effective. The baseline and end-line survey results revealed that positive results have been achieved in the overall hygiene situation. In the baseline survey the situation was poor i. e. lack of safe water, poor sanitation facilities, poor hygiene practice etc. At the end of the project, an improvement was noted in the overall hygiene and sanitation behaviour. Though improvements were noticed after the implementation of project, it should not be forgotten that it takes time to consolidate behaviour changes, so more follow up is necessary for further improvement. 10 11 12 (Curtis et al. , 2000). Brian Appleton and Christine van Wijk (IRC), 2003. Amhara Regional State Health Bureau, 2011; Isabel Carter, 2005 13 See for instance the study of Ryan et al. published in 2001 23 9 RECOMMENDATIONS Although the WASH project can been seen as a success, the team noted some recommendations for future interventions. ? ? Construct 15 shell wells in Lolkuach village so that inhabitants meet SPHERE standards Assess whether it is possible to dig wells in the locations where people move to during the dry season ? Introduce rain water harvesting techniques, which are easy sources of potable water and would reduce the distance travelled to access water, thus improving the protection status of the women and girls that are responsible for this task. ? ? Follow up on well water quality in rehabilitated wells Although respondents recognized that animal feces can contaminate water, only 15% in the end-line noted that the proximity of a latrine to a water source can contaminate drinking water. This could be stressed and improved in future hygiene promotion activities. 24 10 References 1. Amhara Regional State Health Bureau (2011). Training Manual on Hygiene and Sanitation Promotion and Community Mobilization for Volunteer Community Health Promoters (VCHP)/ Draft for Review. Online Available at: http://pdf. usaid. gov/pdf_docs/PNADP828. pdf 2. Andrea Naylor. Development and Implementation of Sanitation Survey Using a Knowledge Attitudes Practices (KAP) Model. University of South Florida (Tampa): CGN6933 â€Å"Sustainable Development Engineering: Water, Sanitation, Indoor Air, Health† and PHC6301 â€Å"Water Pollution and Treatment†. 3. Brian Appleton and Christine van Wijk (IRC) (2003). Hygiene Promotion Thematic Overview Paper. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre 4. Boot, Marieke T. and Cairncross, Sandy (1993). Actions speak: The study of hygiene behaviour in water and sanitation project. The Hague: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. 5. CAWST (Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology) (2009) Household water treatment and safe storage factsheet: natural coagulants. Online Available at: http://cawst. org/en/resources/pubs/file/38-hwts-fact-sheets-academic-english 6. Davis, J. and Lambert, R (2002) Engineering in emergencies – A practical guide for relief, workers 2nd edition, Rugby: Practical actions publishing 7. Dev Sehgal, J. (2005) A guide to rainwater harvesting in Malaysia. 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McKee, Neill (1992). Social mobilization and social marketing in developing communities: Lessons for communicators. Penang: Southbound. 14. Nichter, M. (1993). Social science lessons from diarrhea research and their application to ARI. Human Organization 52(1), 53-67. 15. Ouagadougou: Ministere de la Sante du Burkina Faso. Curtis, V. A. , Cairncross, S, Yonli, R. (2000) Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea, pinpointing the problem. Tropical Medicine and International Health 5(1):22-32. 16. Pru? ss, A. , Kay, D. , Fewtrell, L. Bartram, J. (2002). Estimating the global burden of disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at the global level. Environmental Health Perspectives 110(5), 537–542. 17. Ryan, M. A. K, Christian, R. Wohlrabe, J. (2001). Hand washing and respiratory illness among young adults in military training. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 21(2):79-83. 18. Saade, Camille, Bateman, Massee, Bendahmane, Diane B. (2001). The story of a successful public-private partnership in Central America: Handwashing for diarrheal disease prevention. Arlington, BASICS, EHP, UNICEF, USAID and World Bank. 19. UNICEF (2000). Learning from experience: Evaluation of UNICE’s water and environmental sanitation programme in India, 1966-1998. New York, UNICEF Evaluation Office, Division of Evaluation, Policy and Planning. 26 20. Verma, B. L. Srivastava, R. N. (1990). Measurement of the personal cost of illness due to some major water-related diseases in an Indian rural population. International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 19, No. 1: 169-175. 21. Water Quality and Health Councils (2010) Water storage tips to assist in emergency preparedness. Online Available at: http://www. waterandhealth. org/drinkingwater/water_storage. php3 22. WHO (World Health Organization) (2008a) Safer water, better health – Costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote the health. Online Available at: http://whqlibdoc. who. int/publications/2008/9789241596435_eng. pdf 23. WHO (World Health Organization) (2008b) Guidelines for drinking-water quality- Third edition Incorporating the first and second addenda. Online Available at: http://www. who. int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/fulltext. pdf 24. WHO(2002). Water Supply. Environmental Health in Emergency. Online Available at: http://www. who. int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/emergencies/em2002chap7. pdf 25. WHO/UNICEF (2005). Water for Life: Making it happen. http://www. who. int/water_sanitation_health/waterforlife. pdf . 26. WHO UNICEF (2006). Meeting the MDG Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York. 27. WSSCC (2004). The Campaign: WASH Facts and Figures. Online Available at: Online Available at: http://www. wsscc. org/dataweb. cfm? edit_id=292CFID=13225CFTOKEN=70205233. 28. Wijk, Christine van (1998). Gender in water resources management, water supply and sanitation: Roles and realities revisited. Technical paper No. 33-E). The Hague: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. 29. http://www. unicef. org/media/files/JMPreport2012. pdf: UNICEF, WHO: Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation update 2012 UPDATE. 27 30. http://www. cdc. gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics. html : Centre of Disease Control and Prevention (2012) Global WASH Fast Facts 28 How to cite Kap Report Endline September 2012, Essay examples

Change in Behavior and Effectiveness of Studies

Question: Discuss how the writing process discussed in GEN201 can help you advance in your education and your career. Answer: Introduction The academic learning is a defining factor in the study procedure. There are many benefits for studies. One can create educational goals for himself. Several people have their different learning style, and they can learn specific techniques. Correct learning style can help someone to find most appropriate career pathway. Academic integrity is more than necessary for making the right choice regarding career goal setting. It is the moral code or ethical policy of academics. This includes values like avoiding unfair means like plagiarism or cheating. Honesty and rigor in studies are essential for academic research. Everyone should refrain from any act of dishonesty performed to maintain his or her name clean (Wohlwill, 2013). Discussion Rights, relationships, and responsibilities are some of the ingredients for core values in academics. Rationality and quality are the two factors, which are invaluable for fairness and justice in the community. Autonomy and quality are those core values, which value equally for me. In order to achieve the best result, I see protecting human rights and function of the community working together are the ways to follow. I believe every situation is unique in their way, so we need to counter each problem correctly to find the correct solution. The best option to combat any problem is consistency and flexible approach. I have set an educational goal to be one of the best students in my university. To do so, I have to be proactive and honest in whatever I do. The rules and regulations need to be followed correctly to achieve something academically. Academics help to build knowledge and thought process. Temperance and justice are important in a sense to satisfy the moral duties (Soria et al ., 2012). The justice should be equal there for all in a state. I have to prefer truth to show consistency and loyalty in dealings with the members of the society. Society with proper temperament and fairness is necessary to keep the human right in place. There is a sense of satisfaction, which cannot be defined in helping the needy people. To achieve a correct result, one has to give equal importance to everyone. Education has helped me to understand my responsibility as a citizen. Every citizen has a role to play in building a good society. Ethics in society is needed to keep the values together. In an ethical society, the crimes are less. People are responsible, and they try to make the community clean. I assume that every person must value universal application of a fair system to achieve something. I have understood that every responsible person should take an initiative to make his or her society a better place to live. An ethical person is a man who fulfills his duties and shows respect to others (Stanovich, 2012). My career goal is to get elementary education. Elementary education program will prepare me to teach students in future. Elementary education is the education that is primitive for everyone. This area of learning would provide me the expertise and confidence by which I can teach my future generations. It helps in building students intellectual, moral, social, emotional as well as cultural development. In these courses, upgraded technologies are used to understand the current requirements of the market. These techniques give cutting-edge technological acumen to the students. I shall also imbibe clinical understanding of the subject that I have chosen. Critical thinking is a way to intervene the thought process. I have developed critical thinking skill to find out the inner meaning of anything. The critical thinking helps to erase out the biasness and gives thumbs up to fundamental belief. Once the purpose is identified, the work is reduced to half. Critical thinkers find the inner sight of any problem statement. When a problem is faced, I would try only to view the problem from my perspective and I should overlook the thinking of customers, co-workers, clients and what they might see it. I would consider the situation from only one viewpoint, it can lead products that unnecessary spending. Critical thinking is to bring those biases to light so that they do not obstruct my decisions. I should approach the problem from many different viewpoints. I should imagine myself they are as each of the stakeholders and consider how they might feel and act according to each option. The ethical Lens inventory is a personal evaluation tool that has been designed to help the students to understand the values that influence their choice. It identifies how the students prioritize values when making ethical decisions. They can minimize unnecessary conflict and can make better ethical decisions. It would live with the values along with confidence and integrity. In the process of decision, making it may be thought that the investor in the world would face incomplete information in utilizing the expected utility. A true model approach for returns is an unknown entity. It is assumed that the ambiguity is all about probability of future events. I can give the example of Ellburg. It was resolved by an array of unexpected utility models. These models are broadly designated the second order probability. These models follow random variables of returns. Most of the models do not offer empirical counterparts. In the recent works the ambiguity aversion is bestowed over mortality risk, which was nothing sort of ambiguity affection (Satnell Stephen, 2013). A moral person gives equal importance to those who do not enjoy any power, any backing. To be an ethical individual I need to be aware of the duties, I must follow to serve the ordinary people. The educational value has incorporated a great sense of analysis and reasoning in me. The academics have enhanced ethical thinking and made me a better person individually. Now I see every problem carefully and look for a solution through my rational thinking. I try to find the best solution for any problem. My goal is to provide fully informed decision and to meet the needs of the society without harming any general belief. I am now a responsible and ethical person who feel attached to every problem lie in the society. I try to be fair to every member of the community. I know what is needed to do to protect the community and I just try to do that. I have become a loyal person as I care about equality and giving space and respect to everyone. I have learned to live in the present, and I have b ecome interdependent. I prefer to follow the motives rather than to be overconfident in anything. I believe in the continuous process because of all outcomes. I trust everybody in the process. There is a tendency to become autocratic in me; I try to do things myself. In the course of this, I sometimes get too much ethically concerned. I often impose my power on others, and others were thinking process. I impose my will on others for their sake (Musselin, 2013). Excuse is something that can affect the confidence level of someone. The universal rules are there to be followed by everyone. If not, it is a particular case. I believe the group leaders rely on the individual performances of the group to achieve larger goals. Academics has helped me to become more judgmental in particular problems (Goh Sandhu, 2013). Ambitious elitist is not a good option to grow as a person. Without self-knowledge, one can become rigid in approach. When others do not follow their guidelines, I become quick to place them in correct order. A severe elitist overlook abuses of leaders to gain power; the random persons are the one who claim to protect individual rights of those who cannot protect themselves. The practice of mindfulness and reflection of rejoicing is infectious. It can meet all of the obligations that are responsible for self-help. It is true that this type of people become isolated, and they feel guilty that they cannot guaranty justice. I always make sure that my heart and my head agree with what I do. I consider my duty above all the other things. I prefer my obligation to be fair and transparent. I have learned to find different universal rules at the time of making a decision. I live with my best of ideas with compassion and care for it (Collis Hussey, 2013). Conclusion It can be concluded that academics and studies have enabled more viability in me. The decision-making process has been improved by the education. Reading educational journals and books help to increase knowledge as well as rational thinking power. The Experiences I have gathered has influenced positively for me. Critical thinking skills have been vital to analyzing critical situations and finding actual reason for the problem. Rational thinking process gives the advantage to come out with a proper solution. Reference Collis, J., Hussey, R. (2013).Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Palgrave Macmillan. Goh, S. K., Sandhu, M. S. (2013). Knowledge sharing among Malaysian academics: Influence of affective commitment and trust.The Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management,11(1), 38-48. Kahne, J., Westheimer, J. (2014). Teaching democracy.Social Studies Curriculum, The: Purposes, Problems, and Possibilities, 353. Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E., Karpinski, A. C. (2014). The relationship between cell phone use, academic performance, anxiety, and satisfaction with life in college students.Computers in Human Behavior,31, 343-350. Musselin, C. (2013). How peer review empowers the academic profession and university managers: Changes in relationships between the state, schools, and the professoriate.Research Policy,42(5), 1165-1173. Satnell Stephen, (2013). Journal of Asset Management, Volume 14, Issue 6, p. 335 Seyal, A. H., Siau, N. Z., Mey, Y. S. (2015). Evaluating Students Perception of Teaching/Learning Computer Programming: A Study in a Bruneian Technological University.International Foundation for Research and Development (IFRD),6(2), 25. Soria, K. M., Fransen, J., Nackerud, S. (2013). Library use and undergraduate student outcomes: New evidence for students' retention and academic success.Portal: Libraries and the Academy,13(2), 147-164. Stanovich, K. E. (2012). On the distinction between rationality and intelligence: Implications for understanding individual differences in reasoning.The Oxford handbook of thinking and reasoning, 343-365. Wharton, C. Y., Goodwin, L. J., Cameron, A. J. (2014). Living up to Our Students' ExpectationsUsing Student Voice to Influence the Way Academics Think about Their Undergraduates Learning and Their Teaching.International Journal of Higher Education,3(4), p72. Wohlwill, J. F. (2013).The study of behavioral development. Academic Press.

External Environment Analysis Kraft Foods Essay Example

External Environment Analysis Kraft Foods Paper The PEST analysis on the other hand examines the macro-environment, looking at potential political and social threats to industry. The utilization of these two models together will better equip organizations to face ever changing industries and see potential threats. Below the author will discuss the different aspect of each model as well as provide useful web links to gather additional information. Porter Five Forces Analysis The Porter Five Analysis was developed by Michael Porter as a tool utilized by organizations to help identify the structure and competitiveness within an industry (Porter, 2008). It encompasses five different forces that shape the industry; threat of new entrants, threat of substitute products, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers and rivalry among existing competitors (Porter). The ability to analyze and understand trends and threats within an industry is critical for effective strategic planning that will render organizational success (Porter). Below is an analysis of Kraft Foods utilizing the Porter Five analysis model. Buyer Power With so many different varieties of brands available to consumers it is essential that organizations research consumer needs and demands in order o remain successful. As competition increases within the industry, organizations must create new products that adapt to the changing lifestyles and preferences of consumers, which have shifted to a focus on health and wellness (Hathaway, Mark-Plumber, Weaker-Oberon, 2006). Consumers have no loyalty or obligation to stay with one brand and will easily switch as prices and nutritional labels fit their needs. We will write a custom essay sample on External Environment Analysis Kraft Foods specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on External Environment Analysis Kraft Foods specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on External Environment Analysis Kraft Foods specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Conducting analysis of competitors financial statements will also help paint a picture of consumer trends helping organizations to adjust their products. Below are several websites that roved different information on the power that consumers hold. 1. This website discusses Some very important facts relating to the immense power that consumers possess in the food industry and how the demand for healthy food is increasing the price of raw materials resulting in organizations absorbing the overhead costs to keep prices low. It also provides some information of Kraft Foods biggest competitors. Analysis of competitors can help strategists determine future marketing strategies and how to establish brand loyalty. Monitoring competition allows for change and adaptability remitting one to stay on top of their industry by tailoring products to consumer needs/demands. Http://win. Wackiness. Com/stock/ 2. This website provides information that describes the growing demands of consumers and the growth of the healthy food craze. This website really demonstrates the power that consumers hold in the food industry. Consumers are mandating healthy food choices with no SMOG labeling. This has caused organizations to generate new products that are healthy and cater to consumer needs if they are to stay successful. Analyzing consumer trends is extremely important as it will allow a business to better tailor their DOD products and draw in new consumers and maintain loyalty of old consumers. Towpath. Inspirational. Com/vote-yes-on-37. Tm Supplier Power Although there are only ten major suppliers for Kraft Foods they have extreme power over the food industry. Walter is one of Kraft Foods largest clients with the most revenue generated and with so many competitors on the market Kraft Foods must absorb the additional costs of producing cheap food in order to Stay competitive. An individual supplier must offer something special to stand out from the crowd, such as a lower price, faster livery time, more flexible credit t erms, higher product quality or volume discounts (Sullivan, n. . ) 1. This article provides a thorough discussion and different view point on supplier power and monopoly in the food industry. It provides a discussion on how big organizations, such as Wall-Mart, exert their power over their suppliers. Different suppliers have monopolies at supermarkets and can pay for primary shelf space and promote their brands. This leads to smaller suppliers struggling in an industry dominated by large supply companies and large retailers. Http:// documents. Featherweights. Org/doc/Arteriosclerosis-web. UDF 2. Pratt provides a good discussion on how to analyze the bargaining power of suppliers. Understanding the questions he poses will enable an organization to potentially avoid competition and build quality relationships with suppliers thus enhancing chances of industry success. Http://centralizes. Com/ ? Understanding-the-Bargaining-Power-of-Your-Suppliers=4251948 3. This informative website provides a list of the Kraft Foods suppliers. Determining the number of suppliers in an industry can help strategist determine the bargaining power of the suppliers. In hard times suppliers can ration their rodents causing organizations to spend more money upfront and lose revenues. When an organization is able to differentiate their product from competitors it is easier for them to bargain with suppliers for fair pricing. Http://www. Deliberately. Com/as-Kraft-foods/suppliers. HTML Threats of Entrants When an industry is booming the threat of new entrants is high as everyone wants to make profits. The threat of new organizations creates competition among an industry and influences their ability to maintain profits (Wilkinson, 2013). Firms in this industry preserve market share through brand loyalty, versification and the barriers placed within the industry to enter the market (Porter, 2008). It is therefore imperative that these brands maintain quality at a competitive price and drive off new competition. 1 . The following website points out the current economy/industry sales for Kraft Foods and their top competitors. This is a good website as it will paint a picture for future companies as to the market capital, net income, dividends, operating margin and growth revenue. All of which are great indicators as to expenses and revenue generated and allows them to determining if starting a business in his industry is worth the overhead, time and effort. It can also help determine how different products by different companies are comparing to each other. Http://financial. Mornings. Com/competitors/industry- peer. Action? T=KRAFT=usa=en-US 2. This web page provides a table with Kraft Foods top competitors broken down by categories allowing easy access to different aspects of the business. This also allows potential companies to determine which industry they would have the most impact in to succeed. Additionally it provides revenue, income and market share. Http:// scimitars. Com/stocks/competitions. PH? Ode=KRAFT 3. NASDAQ is a great reference for organizations looking at trends in the food industry as it provides information on the financial, size and growth trends as well as market cap. This information is essential to determine if an organization can compete in certain industries. Http://www. NASDAQ. Com/ symbol/Kraft/competitors 4. This informative document discusses current economic indicators and the growth of the food industry over the last 10 years. It talks about nature of the industry, market overview, demand and annual food spending at home. Additionally it provides a discussion on the issues affecting the industry. This resource will help paint a vivid picture of the economy of the industry and help determine if a new product will succeed. Http://trade. Gob/tad/cog/ reporter_predecessors. PDF Threat of Substitutes The growing health trends have led many companies to adapt and change products to fit consumer demands. With a variety of brands available it is imperative organizations cater to consumers in order to avoid losing their loyalty to another company. Consumers in the industry have minimal switching costs and there is never the guarantee Of brand loyalty (Hathaway, Mark-numbers Weaker-Oberon, 2006). In order to keep loyal consumers organizations in this industry must offer new and innovative products. 1 . This document provides valuable information on consumer trends, healthy eating industry dynamic, emerging products, and success factors. This valuable information helps organizations determine current trends and how they can adapt to remain successful and ahead of their competition within the industry. Http://www. PWS. Com/us/en/transaction-services/publications/ assets/functional-foods. PDF 2. This is a very informative website that discusses current trends in the food industry while stating growth regenerates specifically relating to the healthy snacking options. This is a good site to gain a better understanding and insight to healthy alternatives that competitors may be producing as well as market trends http:// www. Knackerys. Com/articles/84475;snack;food;industries 3. Organic Trade Association website provides information on industry statistics and projected growth trends which is can assist organizations in determining their future products based on consumer trends. Http://www. Tot. Com/ organic/met/business. HTML Rivalry Among Existing Competitors In every industry there is rivalry amongst organizations to wi n over nonusers. This can generate new and innovative products, intense sales promotions and pricing wars (Porter, 2008). On the outside this activities may appear to be beneficial but in reality it can lead to increased costs and decreased profits for organizations (Porter). 1. CSS Market online provides a nice graph detailing growth rates Of the major competitors in the food industry. This is an extremely useful tool to help determine where you stand financially next to your competition. Utilizing this information may assist in determining if a new product should be launched and if new marketing tactics are needed. Http://scimitars. Mom/stocks/competition. PH? Code=KRAFT 2. If an organization is to remain successful and on top of their organization they must produce numerous products that cater to consumer demands, I. E healthy food choices. This innovative thinking keeps consumers coming back to the same brands and generates loyalty. Http://www. Fool. Com/investing/ genera 1/201 3/04/22/these-food-companies-are-the-best-at-inspiring-bra. Asps PEST Analysis PEST analysis tool was developed by Francis Jugular to help organization see the macro-environment of their business environment in order to make changes and maximize financial success (Mind Tools, n. D. ). The ability to adapt and change business tactics to meet consumer demands can create new and improved products enhancing brand loyalty (Mind Tools). The PEST analysis focuses on political, economic, socio-cultural, and technological changes in the industry, helping organizations to determine different opportunities (Mind Tools). Political 1 . This website provides information on regulations of the food industry, agricultural industry and federal regulations. Understanding the political implications and regulations of the food industry will assist with licensing and production of food products.

The Many Personalities of Midaq Alley essays

The Many Personalities of Midaq Alley essays The setting of the novel Midaq Alley, by Naguib Mahfouz, may seem like an ordinary and lifeless place at first, with its main street, Sandiqiya Street, consisting of a shop, a caf, and a bakery, another shop...[and] two adjoining houses, each of three stories,(p.1) but this alley is anything but dull. Midaq Alley is a distinctive and personal [place with a] life of its own (p.1) and this unique personality created quite a different array of emotions amongst its characters in the book. Three of the characters in the novel, Hussain Kirsha, Abbas, and Hamida all have distinctly different views of the alley; Hussain Kirsha has a somewhat wavering feeling towards the alley that can be simplistically described as neutral. There is also Abbas, a tranquil and religiously devout Muslim who loves the alley and everything it represents, who, ironically, falls in love with Hamida, a young woman who exceedingly resents the alley. Hussain Kirsha is unimpressed by the alley and wants to and is able to, at first, move on to a more luxurious life. After working in a bicycle store as a younger boy making three piasters...his daily wages were now thirty piasters, (p.32) working in a British army camp. Hussain Kirsha has a bitter resentment towards those of the ally, finding himself full of hostility for the alley and its inhabitants.(p.112) And even though after a fight with his parents, he leaves the alley, by the end of the book, he returns to the alley. While he may not be fully satisfied with his situation, i.e. living in the alley, it is something that he accepts. While Hussain Kirsha made futile attempts to leave the alley, Abbas, on the other hand, if he were left to himself...would make no choice other than the alley. If he spent the rest of his life there, he would be quite happy. The truth was, he loved it.(p.36) Compared to what was going ...

The Moment of Truth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Moment of Truth - Essay Example and extending the service life of the long-term assets of the infrastructure, which are essential in maintaining quality of life in a society, as well as mainstreaming the economy. There are various studies that have indicated that the implementation of the Municipal Infrastructure Asset management System in the UAE faces a myriad of challenges. However, these studies did not seek to provide a backup for this connotation. Perhaps, their failure to do this might be attributed to the fact that the complexity and magnitude of challenges that face the financial and physical aspects of the civil infrastructure systems, which have been supporting the traditional lifestyles of communities in the world is quite complex and significant. Considering the fact that the historical management practices have failed to support the expected levels of infrastructural services on sustainable basis, there is need to consider improving approaches for managing the infrastructure perhaps through implementi ng systems such as the Municipal Infrastructure Asset Management. However, the biggest challenge as far as the UAE is concerned has not been on the employability of this systems and whether or not the system can work. The challenge has been identifying all the possible changes but rather the inherent factors that come into play making the implementation process to be somewhat challenging. After many years of capital investment in the infrastructure in Europe, as well as in the United States, the need to make sure such infrastructure are sustained has not worked following the many mounting challenges attributed to it. Among the current duress include political pressures to have the public spending reduced, tight local and state budget, and the deferral of the required maintenance funding. It has been noted that progressive aging capital, the parochial statuses, as well as the interest groups have become a major hindrance to flexible procurement strategies. Moreover, the rise of the

The Concept of American Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Concept of American Music - Essay Example music traditions, which have also essential effects on American music. In the paper we analyze all the implications of the statement ‘Rock and pop music in the United States is African-American music’ and investigate the issue of American music origin and its present trying to point out whether it is determined mainly by African-American tendencies and whether there are other crucial factors, which affect American music to a considerable extent. American Music Controversy and Diversity It is commonly accepted that African music has made a significant influence on development of overall American pop and rock music beginning with 19th century (Nicholls 123). The most major effects could be easily discovered if consider spirituals, slave songs, jazz, blues, soul, and rock and roll music tendencies. Originally all these integral parts of American music culture were developed by African slaves in the US and only later they became common within all American social and racial s tratums. However, another inseparable part of American music, country music, is supposed to emerge due to both African and European impacts as well as Hawaiian and notably Native American traditions. When searching for arguments that support or disprove that American music is affected significantly by African motives, it is worth to consider American folk music first of all, which brought to life American popular music later (Nicholls 47).Originally, it comprised such styles as gospel and blues, which have undoubtedly strong connections to West African culture and further have been modified and extended due to English, Spanish and French motives (Nicholls 135). Generally, American folk music involves such traditional instruments as drums, shakers, which are included to percussion group of instruments, and flute, all of which have strong associations with African traditions. However, it is also worth to mention that British tendencies had also a significant impact on American folk mu sic development enriching it with such techniques as drone, which is constantly repeating motive through the whole theme, and numerous ballad songs. Moreover, complex rhythms, or polyrhythms, which are associated with American music, are also inherent characteristics of African music and were integrated into the US music traditions by black people (Nicholls 109). At the same time African culture seems not to bother a lot about melody and this tradition American music derived from European counties. Another fact that confirms strong relationship between African and American music concerns the issue of syncopation, which is heavily used in modern American pop music. Syncopation means that common rhythmic accent is moved from strong to weak beat and is an original African invention. Another initially African feature, which is clearly presented in American music, is about call and response technique (Nicholls 47). The method implies that several musicians play their phrases in such way that one of them sounds like a response to other parts. On contrary, there are some important British tendencies, which affected American music and directed its further development. 1960s are associated with British invasion in the US music and presented times when American blues and blues rock musicians were influenced significantly by mainstream music tendencies in Great Britain. The other thing, which clearly confirms strong African

RPS in Galaxy Clusters Analysis

RPS in Galaxy Clusters Analysis Jellyfish:  A  spectroscopic  study  of  ram-pressure  stripping  in  massive  galaxy  clusters* ABSTRACT We continue our exploration of ram-pressure stripping (RPS) in massive galaxy clusters at z>0.3 by assessing the spectroscopic properties of RPS candidates selected previously based on their morphological appearance in Hubble Space Telescope images. We confirm cluster membership for 55 of our candidates, thereby tripling the number of RPS candidates known at z>0.2. Although many of these systems are too faint and too distant for the kind of in-depth investigation required to unambiguously confirm or refute the presence of RPS, the ensemble properties of our sample are consistent with increased star formation, and many of the selected galaxies exhibit visible debris trails. Specifically, about two thirds of all galaxies exhibit line emission ([OII]ÃŽÂ »3727AËÅ ¡ , HÃŽÂ ², and, where observationally accessible, HÃŽÂ ±) consistent with ro- bust star-formation rates that significantly exceed those expected for systems on the galaxy main sequence. We find no significant depe ndence of either the presence of line emission or the inferred star-formation rate on the relaxation state of the host cluster. Although we caution that our sample may contain not only galaxies undergoing RPS by the diffuse intra-cluster medium (ICM), but also minor mergers located at the low-density cluster outskirts and merely projected onto the cluster cores, we expect our results to facilitate and inform realistic process models of the stripping process by providing the first statistically significant sample of RPS candidates in truly massive clusters. While extremely rapid removal of the intrastellar medium is not ruled out by our findings, extended periods of triggered star formation are clearly an integral component of the physics of ICM-galaxy interaction in massive clusters. INTRODUCTION Spiral and elliptical galaxies are both commonly observed in the universe but inhabit (and dominate) very different environments. The inverse correlation between spiral fraction and density of the environment has long been established based on both galaxy mor- phology and colour (Dressler 1980; Baldry et al. 2006) and is so pronounced as to suggest causation. Since the preponderance of red, elliptical galaxies is not limited to the densest environments (i.e., the cores of massive galaxy clusters) but is notable already in groups of galaxies (Blanton Moustakas 2009), several phys- ical mechanisms may be responsible for the observed segregation of galaxy types and appear to be have been at work for several Gyr, as evinced by the steady increase in the dominance of ellipticals in  clusters from zà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¼1.5 to the present day (Scoville et al. 2013). * Most of the data presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Ob- servatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aero- nautics and Space Administration. The observatory was made possible by the generous finical support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. Although simulations have indicated that elliptical galaxies can form directly through spherical collapse of dark-matter halos in high-density environments (e.g. Navarro Benz 1991), it is widely accepted that transformations of galaxies from late to early types are central to the creation of the Hubble sequence. These occur in a range of environments and, most likely, over a range of character- istic timescales. While slow-acting gradual effects such as galaxy harassment (Moore et al. 1996, 1998) are bound to contribute, more violent interactions have been shown to be highly effective in turning disk galaxies into spheroids. In modestly dense environ- ments with commensurately modest relative galaxy velocities, i.e., in galaxy groups and at the outskirts of more massive galaxy clus- ters, galaxy mergers as predicted by Holmberg (1941) and explored in numerical simulations (e.g., Toomre Toomre 1972; Barnes Hernquist 1992, 1996; Mihos Hernquist 1996) can create a wide range of remn ants, including spheroidal galaxies (Toomre 1977; Hammer et al. 2009). By contrast, at the extreme opposite end of the density range where galaxies move too fast to have a signif- icant cross section for merging, ram-pressure stripping (RPS) by the diffuse intra-cluster medium (ICM) has been predicted (Gunn   Gott 1972), simulated (e.g., Farouki Shapiro 1980; Vollmer et   al. 2001; Roediger Hensler 2005; Domainko et al. 2006; Kron- berger et al. 2008; Bekki 2009; Tonnesen Bryan 2010), and ob- served across a wide range of wavelengths. Numerous studies have established that RPS is capable of rapidly displacing and removing gas from spirals falling into galaxy clusters (e.g., White et al. 1991; Rangarajan et al. 1995; Veilleux et al. 1999; Vollmer et al. 2008; Sun et al. 2010). We here present new results from an observational study de- signed to identify and characterise RPS events in massive clusters at intermediate redshift. Our project is motivated by the fact that, while RPS has been well studied in the local Universe (e.g., Sun et al. 2006; Sun, Donahue Voit 2007; Merluzzi et al. 2013; Fuma- galli et al. 2014; Poggianti et al. 2016), work at higher redshift has advanced more slowly, due to the obvious challenges in attaining commensurate signal and spatial resolution (but see Poggianti et al. 2004; Cortese et al. 2007; Moran et al. 2007; Owers et al. 2012). It is only at z>0.2, however, that the volume probed by any clus- ter survey becomes large enough to contain a significant number of truly massive clusters (systems more massive than Coma), i.e., clusters that allow us to study RPS over the full range of environ- ments, from the only mildly overdense cluster outskirts to extreme densities in the core regions that are never reached in local cluster s like Virgo. In this paper we examine the spectroscopic properties of galaxies tentatively identified as undergoing RPS in massive galaxy clusters at z>0.3. All clusters considered for this work were iden- tified by their X-ray emission and optically confirmed in the course of the Massive Cluster Survey (MACS; Ebeling et al. 2001, 2007, 2010; Mann Ebeling 2012). Potential stripping events were se- lected based on the morphology of galaxies in images of MACS cluster cores obtained with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) (see Repp Ebeling, in preparation, for an overview of this dataset). In Ebel- ing et al. (2014, hereafter E14) we presented a first sample of six textbook cases of RPS identified visually in these data and, ow- ing to their appearance, referred to as jellyfish (Fig. 1). Our sec- ond paper (McPartland et al. 2016, hereafter M16) defined a cus- tomized set of morphological selection criteria used to compile a larger sample of 223 potential RPS candidates and examined the spatial distribution and apparent projected direction of motion of the most plausible candidates. In this third paper, we present, dis- cuss, and interpret the results of extensive spectroscopic follow-up observations of the M16 sample. Our paper is organised as follows: After a brief introduction in  §1,  §2 describes the setup and execution of our spectroscopic  follow-up observations of RPS candidates, the data reduction, as well as our criteria to assess cluster membership for any given  galaxy. In  §3 we derive fundamental spectral properties of the con-firmed cluster members, infer star-formation rates, and estimate their stellar mass.  §4 compares the properties of RPS candidates  with those of the general population of star-forming galaxies, dis- cusses physical triggering mechanisms, and investigates correla- tions between the star-formation rate of RPS candidates and the relaxation state of the host cluster. We summarise our findings in  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ §5. Throughout this paper we adopt the concordance ΆºCDM cos-mology, characterised by à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦m= 0.3, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ÃƒÅ½Ã¢â‚¬ º = 0.7, and H0 = 70 km sà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1 Mpcà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1. Figure1.HST/ACS snapshot image of MACSJ0451-JFG1, a textbook case of ram-pressure stripping from the E14 sample. The red and yellow arrows mark the inferred direction of motion in the plane of the sky and the di- rection to the cluster centre, respectively. Note that the tell-tale jellyfish morphology of this z=0.43 galaxy is readily discernible only thanks to the superb resolution of HST/ACS. (Reproduced from E14) SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS AND DATA REDUCTION The targets of our spectroscopic follow-up observations were drawn from the set of 223 galaxies tentatively identified by M16 as undergoing ram-pressure stripping. We refer to M16 for a detailed discussion of the morphological criteria applied to select these can- didates from a master catalogue of over 15,000 galaxies detected in short HST/ACS exposures in the F606W and F814W bands of 63 MACS clusters in the redshift range of 0.30.7. A comprehen- sive description of the HST observations used by M16 is provided by Repp Ebeling (in preparation). Since most of the RPS candidates from the list of 223 were targeted by us in spectroscopic observations of MACS clusters that supported several complementary research projects, compromises had to be made in the design of the observations. In order to max- imise scientific returns, clusters that feature large numbers of tar- gets for each of the different projects were given priority, resulting in a bias in favour of clusters with multiple RPS candidates. In ad- dition, the simultaneous focus on many targets made it impossible to optimise the orientation of individual slits or even the position angle of the entire mask for the study of RPS candidates. Keck/DEIMOS observations All spectroscopic data for this work were obtained with the Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS; Faber et al. 2003) on the Keck II 10m telescope on Maunakea. All multi-object spec- troscopy (MOS) masks used 1//-wide slits of at least 8//length, i.e., long enough to allow sky subtraction from in-slit data. Spectra were obtained using the 600 l/mm Zerodur grating set to a central wavelength of 6300AËÅ ¡ ; the GG455 blocking filter was employed to prevent second-order contamination at ÃŽÂ »>9000AËÅ ¡ . Exposure times  ranged from 3ÃÆ'-600 to 3ÃÆ'-1200 seconds. The seeing during these  observations was typically 0.8//. All data were reduced with the DEIMOS DEEP2 pipeline (Cooper et al. 2012; Newman et al. 2013), creating sky-subtracted and wavelength-calibrated one- and two-dimensional spectra. Redshifts were determined from the one- dimensional spectra using elements of the SpecPro software pack- age (Masters Capak 2011). Overall 110 RPS candidates were observed in 26 MACS clus-ters. Cluster membership We establish (likely) cluster membership by comparing the differ- ence between an RPS candidates redshift and the systemic redshift of the cluster with the cluster velocity dispersion. The latter is com- puted from all galaxy redshifts measured for the respective cluster in the course of the extensive spectroscopic follow-up work per- formed by the MACS team; a description of the underlying data and of the procedure employed to determine robust velocity dispersions for MACS clusters is provided by Repp Ebeling (in preparation). Although it is possible that some of the galaxies for which we rule out cluster membership are in fact still undergoing RPS within their local environment in the fore- or background of the respective MACS cluster, the majority of such non-cluster members are more likely to owe their disturbed optical morphology (and thus their selection in M16) to merger events or to gravitational lensing. In the following, we thus limit the term RPS candidates to galaxies classified as likely cluster members based on their radial velocity within the comoving cluster rest frame. Spectral corrections and flux calibration The reduced spectra created with the DEEP2 pipeline are wave- length-calibrated and thus allow redshift measurements that are ac- curate to within the limits set by the instrumental setup and the pre- cision of the dispersion solution. The determination of line fluxes and, in particular, line-flux ratios across a significant wavelength range, however, require flux-calibrated spectra. In addition, flux lost during the data-reduction process (due to CCD defects, non- optimal definition of spectral apertures, and, importantly, the finite slit width) needs to be recovered, if the measured line fluxes are to be interpreted as characteristics of the observed galaxy as a whole. Whereas corrections for missing flux are fairly straightforward to apply, flux calibration is notoriously difficult for multi-object spec- trographs (especially when the respective observations were not performed at the parallactic angle), owing to spatial variations in the instrument response across the field of vie w covered by the slit mask. Before flux calibration is performed, we visually inspect the two-dimensional spectra of all RPS candidates classified as likely cluster members. We manually mask out the spectral traces of non- target sources falling serendipitously into a slit, fill in bad detector columns, and re-extract the target spectra within an aperture that maximizes the object flux at all wavelengths. We then resort to external means to calibrate these spectra by tying the latter at two wavelengths to the photometry obtained for the respective galaxy with HST/ACS in the F606W and F814W passbands. To this end, we convolve the HST images in these two filters with a Gaussian whose full width at half maximum is matched to the average seeing during our DEIMOS observations and then integrate the flux within the DEIMOS slit (Fig. 2). The re- sulting linear calibration, illustrated in Fig. 3, achieves two goals: it Figure2.Example of the procedure applied to obtain accurate absolute photometry for the flux entering a slit on our MOS masks. Left: HST/ACS image of an RPS candidate in the F606W filter; overlaid are isophotal flux contours (green) and the slit as positioned during the DEIMOS observation. Right: As left, but convolved with a Gaussian kernel that mimics the seeing of the groundbased observation and rotated to align the slit with the image axes. 80 3000 250060 2000 40 1500 1000 20 500 00 40005000600070008000900010000 wavelength (A) Figure 3.DEIMOS spectrum of one of our RPS candidates before and af- ter flux calibration and slit size correction. The green and red lines show the throughput (in arbitrary units) of the ACS/F606W and F814W filters, respectively, used to anchor the flux calibration. (1) crudely corrects for wavelength-dependent variations in the to- tal throughput of our observational setup; and (2) extrapolates the spectrum actually observed through the slit to the spectrum of the entire galaxy. Note that the validity of the latter correction rests on the implicit assumption that the spectrum recorded within the slit is representative of that of the galaxy as a whole. Although this as- sumption is not necessarily well justified, it is widely applied and ensures consistency and comparability between line fluxes (and de- rived properties like star-formation rates) obtained in studies using different instrumental setups and observational strategies. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RPS CANDIDATES Stellar mass In order to establish the locus of our RPS candidates within the general population of star-forming galaxies, we need to ensure that comparisons are made only between galaxies of comparable stellar mass. While the stellar mass of galaxies in our sample cannot re- liably be determined from only the HST/ACS data in the F606W  and F814W used for their original selection by M16, or from the optical spectroscopy within the à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¼5000 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢9000AËÅ ¡ range described in Section 2, photometry across a wider spectral range that extends into the near-infrared (NIR) regime is well suited to constrain the spectral-energy distribution (SED) of galaxies and thus their stel- lar masses. For a significant fraction (QUANTIFY) of our cluster fields, the required data are available thanks to imaging observa- tions of MACS clusters with the NIR channel of HSTs Wide-Field Camera 3 (WFC3) performed for the CLASH project (Postman et al. 2012) and the MACS SNAPshot programs GO-12188 and -12884 (PI: Ebeling) described in Repp Ebeling (in preparation). The resulting photometry in the XXX passbands (CLASH) for 15 of our RPS candidates, and in the F606W, F814W, F110W, and F140W filters (SNAPshot programs) for an additional 17 galaxies, is fit with synthetic spectral templates using LePhare (Arnouts et al. 1999; Ilbert et al. 2006), an SED modeling code developed pri- marily for the determination of photometric redshifts of galaxies in the COSMOS field. Emission-line fluxes and star-formation rates 3.2.1   Extinctioncorrection DISCUSSION BPT diagram RPS candidates and the galaxy main sequence Properties of the host clusters CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Elke Roediger for helpful discussions on the latest in nu- merical simulations of ram-pressure stripping and how to further constrain them via imaging and spectroscopic observations. Most of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Ob- servatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The observa- tory was made possible by the generous finical support of the W. 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